What damage is caused by microplastics released from synthetic fabrics, and how can we limit it — from design to end-of-life disposal.
To date, more than 14 million tonnes of microplastics have accumulated on the ocean floor. This is according to the European Environment Agency (Eea), whose reports also reveal that around 8 per cent of European microplastics in the oceans come from synthetic fabrics — and globally, that figure rises to between 16 and 35 per cent. This means that every year, between 200,000 and 500,000 tonnes of microplastics from fabrics enter the marine environment worldwide. To better frame the issue at the level of the textile industry, it is worth noting that the majority are released during the first washes, and that the fast fashion and ultra fast fashion sectors bear significant responsibility, since garments last only a short time and tend to deteriorate rapidly due to their low quality. Nevertheless, it is possible to reduce or prevent the release of microplastics from fabrics by implementing sustainable design and production processes, adopting care measures that control emissions during use, and improving end-of-life disposal and treatment.
It is difficult to accurately estimate and measure the quantities of microplastics released into the environment, due to the multiple sources involved and the lack of standardised sampling and measurement methods. However, the report by the European Topic Centre on Circular Economy and Resource Use (Etc/Ce) of the Eea on microplastics from textiles estimates that between 6 and 15 million tonnes of plastic enter the environment every year, equivalent to 2.4 per cent of global production. Meanwhile, land-based sources — such as uncontrolled waste disposal and littered plastic waste — account for around 80 per cent of marine debris. Sunlight, wind, waves and other factors cause plastic to break down into small fragments known as microplastics (measuring 0.001–5 mm) or even nanoplastics (less than 0.001 mm).
The entire plastic value chain involves the release of microplastics: this occurs during production, transport, use and at the end of a product's life cycle. In general, they can be divided into two main categories depending on how they are formed. Primary microplastics are intentionally produced — such as stabilisers in cosmetics or pellets used in artificial turf sports fields — while secondary microplastics result from the degradation of larger plastic objects, such as synthetic clothing, abandoned fishing equipment, littered plastic packaging or plastic waste from poorly managed landfills. The European Chemicals Agency (Echa) estimates that every year in Europe, 145,000 tonnes of intentionally produced primary microplastics are used, while 176,000 tonnes of unintentionally formed microplastics are released into European surface waters as a result of the abrasion and ageing of plastic products.
At the European level, the study estimated that between 307 and 925 million items of waste are released into the ocean each year, 82 per cent of which is plastic. Microplastics from fabrics often have a fibrous shape and are therefore known as microfibres: synthetic fabrics are estimated to be responsible for a global dispersal of between 0.2 and 0.5 million tonnes of microplastics into the oceans every year (data from the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017). In Europe in particular, where the majority of households are connected to a wastewater treatment system, it is estimated that 13,000 tonnes of textile microfibres are released into surface waters every year — equivalent to 25 grams per person. A wide range of organisms ingest microplastics, from plankton to fish and large marine mammals. Furthermore, they have been found in human food and drink, including seafood, drinking water, beer, salt and sugar.
To reduce the release of microplastics from fabrics in Europe, the European Environment Agency proposes three main strategies. The first concerns design and production, rethinking them so as to favour less polluting materials that reduce the loss of microfibres during manufacturing. Next come care and use measures for garments, such as washing machine filters, less aggressive detergents and low-temperature wash cycles. Finally, the focus must be on improving disposal and end-of-life treatment. The European Union has already launched strategies to tackle the problem, including the Circular Economy Action Plan and the strategy to reduce the use and impact of plastic.
The use of natural fibres in the textile sector has been proposed as an alternative to synthetic ones in order to reduce the release of microfibres into the environment. However, this solution may not be as effective as it seems. Natural fibres also undergo wear and release microfibres, which can contain chemical additives with potentially harmful effects. Furthermore, not all of them are biodegradable: bio-based polyester, for example, behaves like its fossil-derived counterpart and contributes to the accumulation of microplastics. Industrial textile production processes also affect the dispersal of microfibres, above all due to abrasive friction. Better wastewater treatment and pre-washing at industrial facilities could significantly reduce the problem by intercepting microfibres before they reach the environment.
To counter the release of microfibres into the environment, a key solution is the integration of filters in washing machines. France, a pioneer in this area, has made their installation mandatory on all new models from 2025, while at European level from 2028, with a potential reduction of microfibres of up to 80 per cent. Detergents also play a crucial role: powder detergents, especially on synthetic fabrics, increase friction and promote fibre breakage. Opting for gentle liquid detergents effective at low temperatures could help limit the problem. Furthermore, fast fashion contributes to microfibre dispersal, as new garments shed more fibres during the first few washes. Adopting more circular consumption patterns and extending the lifecycle of clothes can reduce environmental impact, as recent EEA studies highlight.
Beyond reuse and recycling, proper collection and management of textile waste is essential to limit the dispersal of microplastics. Open landfills and poor waste management contribute to secondary pollution, but the export of used textiles from Europe poses additional risks: many recipient countries lack adequate treatment systems, promoting the dispersal of microfibres into wastewater and the environment. Wastewater treatment can intercept up to 98 per cent of microplastics, but only 56 per cent of households in the European Union are connected to advanced treatment plants. Furthermore, many microplastics end up in sewage sludge, often used in agriculture, with possible effects on ecosystems. Stricter regulations and innovative solutions are needed, as total filtration is unlikely and the removal of microplastics from the oceans is near impossible.